Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry

Niouma Nestor Leno; Foromo Guilavogui; Mohamed Diallo; Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba; Youssouf Koita; Laye Kaba; Souleymane Chaloub; Andre Kamano; Alexandre Delamou; Alioune Camara

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry

Niouma Nestor Leno, Foromo Guilavogui, Mohamed Diallo, Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba, Youssouf Koita, Laye Kaba, Souleymane Chaloub, Andre Kamano, Alexandre Delamou, Alioune Camara

Published in International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy (Volume 8, Issue 1)

Received: 20 December 2022 Accepted: 6 January 2023 Published: 17 January 2023

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

Introduction: The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis and to identify factors associated with its occurrence among HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. It also estimated the survival rate among HIV patients co-infected with TB and among HIV patients not co-infected with TB. Methods: In this study, two types of studies were used. An analytical cross-sectional study was used to estimate the prevalence of TB at the time of data collection or extraction among HIV-infected patients. A historical cohort study was used to analyze the survival of HIV patients on ART at different time points during their follow-up. We used Kaplan Meir survival analysis techniques to estimate the cumulative incidence of death among patients on antiretroviral therapy at different follow-up periods. We used multivariate logistic regression to identify associations significantly associated with the occurrence of TB in patients living with HIV. Results: The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients was 21.19%. The cumulative probability of death for patients on ART was 6.80%, or an incidence rate of 3.27 per 100 person-years. The advanced clinical stage of HIV infection at ART initiation, the low CD4 count at ART initiation, and the high viral load at ART initiation were statistically associated with the occurrence of TB in HIV-infected patients (all AOR > 1, p-value < 0.05). Conclusion: This study showed that the cumulative probability of death was higher in patients co-infected with HIV and TB than in those who were not. A mixed study (a prospective quantitative component and a qualitative component) could allow a better understanding of this phenomenon of tuberculosis occurrence among HIV-infected patients in Guinea.

Published in	International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy (Volume 8, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
Page(s)	1-9
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

HIV, Tuberculosis, Co-infection, Prevalence, Mortality, Guinea

References

[1]	Belew H, Wubie M, Tizazu G, Bitew A, Birlew T. Predictors of tuberculosis infection among adults visiting anti-retroviral treatment center at east and west Gojjam, northwest, Ethiopia, 2017. BMC Infect Dis. 2020; 20 (1): 1–10.
[2]	Ka D, Ngom Guéye NF, Fall N, Touré-Badiane NO, Diop N, Batista G, et al. Prévalence de la co-infection tuberculose/VIH chez les patients naïfs d’ARV suivis au centre de traitement ambulatoire (CTA) de fann à Dakar (Sénégal) [Prevalence of tuberculosis/HIV co-infection in ARV-naive patients followed at the Fann outpatient treatment center (CTA) in Dakar, Senegal]. Med Sante Trop. 2017; 27 (4): 392–6.
[3]	Moore D, Liechty C, Ekwaru P, Were W, Mwima G, Solberg P, et al. Prevalence, incidence and mortality associated with tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in rural Uganda. Aids. 2007; 21 (6): 713–9.
[4]	Zeru MA. Prevalence and associated factors of hiv-tb co-infection among hiv patients: A retrospective study. Afr Health Sci. 2021; 21 (3): 1003–9.
[5]	Mitku AA, Dessie ZG, Muluneh EK, Workie DL. Prevalence and associated factors of TB/HIV co-infection among HIV infected patients in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Afr Health Sci. 2016; 16 (2): 588–95.
[6]	Arpagaus A, Franzeck FC, Sikalengo G, Ndege R, Mnzava D, Rohacek M, et al. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients in rural Tanzania: The prospective Kilombero and Ulanga antiretroviral cohort. PLoS One [Internet]. 2020; 15 (3): 1–16. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229875
[7]	Gelaw YA, Williams G, Soares Magalhães RJ, Gilks CF, Assefa Y. HIV Prevalence Among Tuberculosis Patients in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. AIDS Behav [Internet]. 2019; 23 (6): 1561–75. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-02386-4
[8]	Mulugeta T, Takale A, Umeta B, Terefe B. Active TB infection and its associated factors among HIV-1 infected patients at Jimma medical center, Southwest Ethiopia. J Pharm Heal Care Sci. 2021; 7 (1): 1–7.
[9]	do Prado TN, Miranda AE, de Souza FM, dos Santos Dias E, Sousa LKF, Arakaki-Sanchez D, et al. Factors associated with tuberculosis by HIV status in the Brazilian national surveillance system: A cross sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2014; 14 (1): 1–8.
[10]	Winter JR, Stagg HR, Smith CJ, Lalor MK, Davidson JA, Brown AE, et al. Trends in, and factors associated with, HIV infection amongst tuberculosis patients in the era of anti-retroviral therapy: A retrospective study in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. BMC Med. 2018; 16 (1): 1–12.
[11]	Molaeipoor L, Poorolajal J, Mohraz M, Esmailnasab N. Predictors of Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Co-infection: A Case-Control Study. Epidemiol Health. 2014; e2014024.
[12]	Ku NS, Choi YH, Kim YK, Choi JP, Kim JM, Choi JY. Incidence of and risk factors for active tuberculosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in South Korea. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013; 17 (6): 777–81.
[13]	Gedfew M, Ayana M, Abate A, Bewket B, Haile D, Edmealem A, et al. Incidence and predictors of tuberculosis among adult diabetic patients, debre markos referral hospital, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018: A retrospective cohort study. Diabetes, Metab Syndr Obes Targets Ther. 2020; 13: 869–78.
[14]	Awadalla H, El-Samani F, A. Soghaier M, Makki M. Risk Factors Associated with the Development of Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in Khartoum in 2010. AIMS Public Heal. 2015; 2 (4): 784–92.
[15]	Girardi E, Sabin CA, d’Arminio Monforte A, Hogg B, Phillips AN, Gill MJ, et al. Incidence of Tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America. Clin Infect Dis [Internet]. 2005; 41 (12): 1772–82. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16288403
[16]	Gao J, Zheng P, Fu H. Prevalence of TB/HIV Co-Infection in Countries Except China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. 2013; 8 (5).
[17]	Choun K, Thai S, Pe R, Lorent N, Lynen L, van Griensven J. Incidence and risk factors for tuberculosis in hiv-infected patients while on antiretroviral treatment in cambodia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2013; 107 (4): 235–42.
[18]	Zheng Z, Nehl EJ, Zhou C, Li J, Xie Z, Zhou Z, et al. Insufficient tuberculosis treatment leads to earlier and higher mortality in individuals co-infected with HIV in southern China: a cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2020; 20 (1): 1–10.
[19]	Horo K, Toure K, Brou-Gode VC, Ahui BJM, Kouassi BA, Gnazé AZ, et al. La tuberculose du sujet âgé : Épidémiologie et devenir des patients suivis en ambulatoire à Abidjan. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique. [Tuberculosis in the elderly: Epidemiology and fate of patients followed in ambulatory care in Abidjan. Rev Epidemiol Public health Publique]. 2012; 60 (6): 484–8. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respe.2012.02.009
[20]	Progamme National de Lutte Antituberculeuse. Plan Stratégique National de Lutte Antituberculseuse en Guinée 2021 - 2025. Draft 2 du 27 Décembre 2019. Guinée; 2019. [National Tuberculosis Control Program. National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Control in Guinea 2021 - 2025. Draft 2 of December 27, 2019. Guinea; 2019]. Available from: https://portail.sante.gov.gn/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Annexe-3-PSN-TB-Guinee-draft-2-Version-du-27-décembre-2019.pdf
[21]	Dagnra AY, Adjoh K, Tchaptchet Heunda S, Patassi AA, Sadzo Hetsu D, Awokou F, et al. Prévalence de la co-infection VIH-tuberculose et impact de l’infection VIH sur l’évolution de la tuberculose pulmonaire au Togo. Bull la Soc Pathol Exot. 2011; 104 (5): 342–6.
[22]	Atnafu A, Kebede A, Misganaw B, Teshome DF, Biks GA, Demissie GD, et al. Determinants of the Continuum of Maternal Healthcare Services in Northwest Ethiopia: Findings from the Primary Health Care Project. J Pregnancy [Internet]. 2020 Aug 26; 2020: 1–8. Available from: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jp/2020/4318197/
[23]	Djiguy Sylla. Le devenir des patients adultes VIH positif a six mois après initiation au traitement antirétroviral à l ’ hôpital de Sikasso. 2018.
[24]	S DLR, Agbodande KA, Zannou DM, Houngbe F. Profil clinique et évolutif de la tuberculose selon le statut sérologique VIH en Médecine Interne au CNHU-HKM de Cotonou Clinical and progressive outline of tuberculosis according to the HIV status in Internal Medicine Clinic at CNHU-HKM in Cotonou. Rev Africaine Médecine Interne. 2017; 4 (1): 40–7.
[25]	Meli H, Cissoko Y, Konaté I, Soumaré M, Fofana A, Dembélé JP, Kaboré M, Cissé MA, Zaré A, Dao S. Co-infection tuberculose-VIH compliquée d’une sur infection nosocomiale à Klebsiella pneumoniae: à propos de 4 observations dans un Service de Maladies Infectieuses au Mali [Tuberculosis and HIV coinfection complicated by nosocomial infection caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae: about 4 cases in a Department of Infectious diseases in Mali]. Pan Afr Med J. 2020 Oct 8; 37: 141. French. doi: 10.11604/pamj.2020.37.141.22716. PMID: 33425174; PMCID: PMC7757233.

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Niouma Nestor Leno, Foromo Guilavogui, Mohamed Diallo, Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba, Youssouf Koita, et al. (2023). Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy, 8(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Niouma Nestor Leno; Foromo Guilavogui; Mohamed Diallo; Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba; Youssouf Koita, et al. Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. Int. J. Infect. Dis. Ther. 2023, 8(1), 1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Niouma Nestor Leno, Foromo Guilavogui, Mohamed Diallo, Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba, Youssouf Koita, et al. Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. Int J Infect Dis Ther. 2023;8(1):1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11,
  author = {Niouma Nestor Leno and Foromo Guilavogui and Mohamed Diallo and Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba and Youssouf Koita and Laye Kaba and Souleymane Chaloub and Andre Kamano and Alexandre Delamou and Alioune Camara},
  title = {Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry},
  journal = {International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-9},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  abstract = {Introduction: The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis and to identify factors associated with its occurrence among HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. It also estimated the survival rate among HIV patients co-infected with TB and among HIV patients not co-infected with TB. Methods: In this study, two types of studies were used. An analytical cross-sectional study was used to estimate the prevalence of TB at the time of data collection or extraction among HIV-infected patients. A historical cohort study was used to analyze the survival of HIV patients on ART at different time points during their follow-up. We used Kaplan Meir survival analysis techniques to estimate the cumulative incidence of death among patients on antiretroviral therapy at different follow-up periods. We used multivariate logistic regression to identify associations significantly associated with the occurrence of TB in patients living with HIV. Results: The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients was 21.19%. The cumulative probability of death for patients on ART was 6.80%, or an incidence rate of 3.27 per 100 person-years. The advanced clinical stage of HIV infection at ART initiation, the low CD4 count at ART initiation, and the high viral load at ART initiation were statistically associated with the occurrence of TB in HIV-infected patients (all AOR > 1, p-value Conclusion: This study showed that the cumulative probability of death was higher in patients co-infected with HIV and TB than in those who were not. A mixed study (a prospective quantitative component and a qualitative component) could allow a better understanding of this phenomenon of tuberculosis occurrence among HIV-infected patients in Guinea.},
 year = {2023}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry
AU  - Niouma Nestor Leno
AU  - Foromo Guilavogui
AU  - Mohamed Diallo
AU  - Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba
AU  - Youssouf Koita
AU  - Laye Kaba
AU  - Souleymane Chaloub
AU  - Andre Kamano
AU  - Alexandre Delamou
AU  - Alioune Camara
Y1  - 2023/01/17
PY  - 2023
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
T2  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
JF  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
JO  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
SP  - 1
EP  - 9
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-966X
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
AB  - Introduction: The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis and to identify factors associated with its occurrence among HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. It also estimated the survival rate among HIV patients co-infected with TB and among HIV patients not co-infected with TB. Methods: In this study, two types of studies were used. An analytical cross-sectional study was used to estimate the prevalence of TB at the time of data collection or extraction among HIV-infected patients. A historical cohort study was used to analyze the survival of HIV patients on ART at different time points during their follow-up. We used Kaplan Meir survival analysis techniques to estimate the cumulative incidence of death among patients on antiretroviral therapy at different follow-up periods. We used multivariate logistic regression to identify associations significantly associated with the occurrence of TB in patients living with HIV. Results: The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients was 21.19%. The cumulative probability of death for patients on ART was 6.80%, or an incidence rate of 3.27 per 100 person-years. The advanced clinical stage of HIV infection at ART initiation, the low CD4 count at ART initiation, and the high viral load at ART initiation were statistically associated with the occurrence of TB in HIV-infected patients (all AOR > 1, p-value Conclusion: This study showed that the cumulative probability of death was higher in patients co-infected with HIV and TB than in those who were not. A mixed study (a prospective quantitative component and a qualitative component) could allow a better understanding of this phenomenon of tuberculosis occurrence among HIV-infected patients in Guinea.
VL  - 8
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Niouma Nestor Leno

Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences and Techniques, Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry, Conakry, Guinea
Foromo Guilavogui

African Center of Excellence for Prevention and Control of Communicable Diseases (CEA-PCMT), Faculty of Health Sciences and Techniques, Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry, Conakry, Guinea
Mohamed Diallo

National AIDS and Hepatitis Control Program, Conakry, Guinea
Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba

Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences and Techniques, Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry, Conakry, Guinea
Youssouf Koita

National AIDS and Hepatitis Control Program, Conakry, Guinea
Laye Kaba

National AIDS and Hepatitis Control Program, Conakry, Guinea
Souleymane Chaloub

NGO Doctors Without Borders of Belgium, Conakry, Guinea
Andre Kamano

NGO Doctors Without Borders of Belgium, Conakry, Guinea
Alexandre Delamou

Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences and Techniques, Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry, Conakry, Guinea
Alioune Camara

Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences and Techniques, Gamal Abdel Nasser University of Conakry, Conakry, Guinea

Download PDF

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Niouma Nestor Leno, Foromo Guilavogui, Mohamed Diallo, Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba, Youssouf Koita, et al. (2023). Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy, 8(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Niouma Nestor Leno; Foromo Guilavogui; Mohamed Diallo; Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba; Youssouf Koita, et al. Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. Int. J. Infect. Dis. Ther. 2023, 8(1), 1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Niouma Nestor Leno, Foromo Guilavogui, Mohamed Diallo, Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba, Youssouf Koita, et al. Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry. Int J Infect Dis Ther. 2023;8(1):1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11,
  author = {Niouma Nestor Leno and Foromo Guilavogui and Mohamed Diallo and Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba and Youssouf Koita and Laye Kaba and Souleymane Chaloub and Andre Kamano and Alexandre Delamou and Alioune Camara},
  title = {Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry},
  journal = {International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-9},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijidt.20230801.11},
  abstract = {Introduction: The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis and to identify factors associated with its occurrence among HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. It also estimated the survival rate among HIV patients co-infected with TB and among HIV patients not co-infected with TB. Methods: In this study, two types of studies were used. An analytical cross-sectional study was used to estimate the prevalence of TB at the time of data collection or extraction among HIV-infected patients. A historical cohort study was used to analyze the survival of HIV patients on ART at different time points during their follow-up. We used Kaplan Meir survival analysis techniques to estimate the cumulative incidence of death among patients on antiretroviral therapy at different follow-up periods. We used multivariate logistic regression to identify associations significantly associated with the occurrence of TB in patients living with HIV. Results: The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients was 21.19%. The cumulative probability of death for patients on ART was 6.80%, or an incidence rate of 3.27 per 100 person-years. The advanced clinical stage of HIV infection at ART initiation, the low CD4 count at ART initiation, and the high viral load at ART initiation were statistically associated with the occurrence of TB in HIV-infected patients (all AOR > 1, p-value Conclusion: This study showed that the cumulative probability of death was higher in patients co-infected with HIV and TB than in those who were not. A mixed study (a prospective quantitative component and a qualitative component) could allow a better understanding of this phenomenon of tuberculosis occurrence among HIV-infected patients in Guinea.},
 year = {2023}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence and Mortality Associated with Tuberculosis Among HIV-Infected Patients in High-Volume HIV Care Sites in Conakry
AU  - Niouma Nestor Leno
AU  - Foromo Guilavogui
AU  - Mohamed Diallo
AU  - Aboubacar Sidiki Magassouba
AU  - Youssouf Koita
AU  - Laye Kaba
AU  - Souleymane Chaloub
AU  - Andre Kamano
AU  - Alexandre Delamou
AU  - Alioune Camara
Y1  - 2023/01/17
PY  - 2023
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
T2  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
JF  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
JO  - International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy
SP  - 1
EP  - 9
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-966X
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijidt.20230801.11
AB  - Introduction: The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of tuberculosis and to identify factors associated with its occurrence among HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. It also estimated the survival rate among HIV patients co-infected with TB and among HIV patients not co-infected with TB. Methods: In this study, two types of studies were used. An analytical cross-sectional study was used to estimate the prevalence of TB at the time of data collection or extraction among HIV-infected patients. A historical cohort study was used to analyze the survival of HIV patients on ART at different time points during their follow-up. We used Kaplan Meir survival analysis techniques to estimate the cumulative incidence of death among patients on antiretroviral therapy at different follow-up periods. We used multivariate logistic regression to identify associations significantly associated with the occurrence of TB in patients living with HIV. Results: The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients was 21.19%. The cumulative probability of death for patients on ART was 6.80%, or an incidence rate of 3.27 per 100 person-years. The advanced clinical stage of HIV infection at ART initiation, the low CD4 count at ART initiation, and the high viral load at ART initiation were statistically associated with the occurrence of TB in HIV-infected patients (all AOR > 1, p-value Conclusion: This study showed that the cumulative probability of death was higher in patients co-infected with HIV and TB than in those who were not. A mixed study (a prospective quantitative component and a qualitative component) could allow a better understanding of this phenomenon of tuberculosis occurrence among HIV-infected patients in Guinea.
VL  - 8
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download